Unveiling Racism in Public Exhibitions

In the 19th century, so-called "human zoos" appeared across Europe, where people from Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Oceania were put on display in public exhibitions. Visitors would pay to observe individuals and families, often forcefully brought overseas, and housed in constructed "villages" meant to simulate their native environments. These displays were widespread and appeared in cities such as Paris, Brussels, Hamburg, and Lisbon.

The practice reflected prevailing colonial and racist attitudes, reducing real people to curiosities for entertainment and pseudo-scientific study. In some documented cases, such as at the 1897 Brussels exhibition, entire communities were showcased, with some individuals dying far from home. By examining this troubling history, it becomes possible to better understand the roots of racial stereotypes and confront the legacy left behind.

Origins of Human Zoos

Human zoos in 19th century Europe emerged as a result of intersecting trends in public spectacle, scientific curiosity, and imperial expansion. The practice combined ethnographic display, colonial power structures, and developing scientific theories shaped by anthropology and eugenics.

Early Ethnographic Exhibitions

Public exhibitions of people from colonized or remote regions became common in European cities during the 1800s. Organizers labeled these displays as “ethnographic exhibitions,” presenting non-European individuals in reconstructed settings meant to mimic their cultures.

These events were often held at world’s fairs and in specially designated “villages.” Visitors observed people carrying out daily activities, turning their lives into public performance.

Famed organizers like Carl Hagenbeck promoted such spectacles as “living dioramas.” The displays claimed to educate Europeans about other societies but usually reinforced stereotypes and emphasized perceived “primitiveness.”

Key Points

Common at large events: Expositions, zoos, fairs
Featured staged villages and daily life activities
Focused on non-European ethnic groups

Role of Colonialism in Human Displays

Colonial expansion contributed directly to the rise of human zoos. European powers, including France, Belgium, Germany, and Britain, dominated large territories in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.

Colonial officials supplied people to be shown in Europe, presenting them as representative “specimens” of their regions. These exhibits supported ideas of European superiority and justified imperial rule by linking subject peoples to notions of “backwardness.”

Human displays were often part of government-sponsored efforts to promote colonization and public enthusiasm. The controversial 1897 exhibition at Tervuren, Belgium, for instance, featured Congolese individuals in reconstructed “villages” and reinforced colonial ideologies through their presentation.

Influence of Anthropology and Eugenics

Anthropology and eugenics provided a pseudo-scientific rationale for human zoos. Anthropologists of that era measured physical features and documented behaviors, often ranking groups according to biased hierarchies.

Eugenics proponents used displays to argue for inherent racial differences and to promote ideas about human “improvement” based on selective breeding. Such exhibits claimed to be educational but frequently relied on stereotypes and dehumanizing interpretations.

The involvement of scientists gave human zoos an air of legitimacy, which made them attractive to schools, universities, and the general public. Researchers used the opportunity to “study” people in the exhibits and supported the continuation of these displays throughout the century.

Key Events and Exhibitions in Europe

During the 19th century, several European cities staged large-scale displays featuring people from colonized regions. These exhibitions reflected prevailing social attitudes and served as both public spectacles and explicit reflections of colonial ideology.

Popular Grand Exhibitions

Across Europe, grand exhibitions became a means for the public to view people from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific in pseudo-ethnographic settings. Such expositions occurred in cities including Hamburg, London, Brussels, and Paris. Their organizers constructed “native villages” and imported individuals to live and perform daily activities under observation.

Entrepreneurs often orchestrated these events around world fairs or seasonal festivals. Visitors paid to see so-called “primitive” lifestyles staged for Western audiences. Souvenirs, programs, and posters accompanied these spectacles, reinforcing stereotypes. The displays shaped public views of race, hierarchy, and empire, influencing generations to come.

Notable features:

Live demonstrations of traditional crafts
Costumed performances
Detailed recreations of houses and habitats

The Exposition Universelle

The Exposition Universelle, especially the 1889 Paris event, stands out as one of the most infamous instances of the human zoo phenomenon. Organizers featured several “villages” populated by people brought from French colonies, including Senegalese, Vietnamese, and Kanak individuals.

These “villages” became popular attractions, drawing millions of visitors. The event aimed to display technological progress alongside colonial possessions, suggesting a civilizing mission. The “negro village” and “Tonkinese village” were among the most visited sections.

Prominently, official guidebooks and newspapers covered the displays, framing them as educational. The lasting legacy of the Exposition Universelle is its role in normalizing ideas of racial hierarchy within European society.

Bois de Boulogne Shows

Bois de Boulogne, a large public park in Paris, frequently hosted outdoor human exhibitions from the late 19th century. These shows specialized in recreating colonial environments by importing whole communities from regions such as Madagascar, Sudan, and New Caledonia.

Live-in exhibits included thatched huts, cooking fires, and daily rituals staged for constant public scrutiny. The performances were designed to highlight contrast with European lifestyles. Attendance was high, and the events sometimes lasted for months at a time.

The Bois de Boulogne shows reinforced the idea of exoticism and otherness. They helped establish public parks as venues for both entertainment and the propagation of imperial narratives.

Notable Figures and Organizers

Key developers of 19th-century European human zoos included both influential entrepreneurs and reputable scientific institutions. They played major roles in shaping public perceptions of race and culture through their involvement in these displays.

Carl Hagenbeck’s Exhibits

Carl Hagenbeck, a German animal trader and showman, was one of the primary organizers of human zoos. In the 1870s, he began to stage what he called “ethnological exhibitions.” These shows brought groups of people, often from Africa and Asia, to be displayed alongside exotic animals.

Hagenbeck carefully selected individuals to represent certain ethnic groups and designed elaborate backdrops to suggest their supposed "natural habitats." His exhibits, such as the 1874 Samoan and Sami displays in Hamburg, attracted large audiences.

He popularized a style that focused on presenting people as part of living dioramas, blending anthropology, entertainment, and commercial spectacle. Hagenbeck’s methods became a model for similar exhibitions across Europe, reinforcing racial stereotypes through their presentation.

Role of the Royal College of Surgeons

The Royal College of Surgeons in London contributed to human zoos through scientific involvement and public lectures. Members of the College sometimes collaborated with organizers to provide a scientific veneer to the displays, positioning them as educational rather than purely commercial.

They studied the anatomy and customs of those exhibited, often using these observations to support existing racial theories. Public dissections and detailed anthropometric measurements were conducted, turning individuals into objects of research.

These activities were often justified under the label of anthropology, but the methods and outcomes contributed to the objectification and dehumanization of people from colonized regions. The College's participation lent credibility to the exhibitions and helped legitimize their social impact among educated audiences.

Represented Peoples and Regions

European "human zoos" of the 19th century often displayed individuals from areas colonized or considered exotic by Western audiences. The exhibitions reflected not only pseudoscientific curiosity but also reinforced racial and cultural hierarchies prevalent during this period.

African Communities in Human Zoos

In many major European cities, Africans were displayed in reconstructed villages or settings that were designed to appear “authentic.” These exhibitions took place in countries such as France, Germany, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. Participants were often brought from various regions including the Congo, Senegal, and Sudan.

Notable examples include:

The 1889 Paris Exposition, where people from Senegal and Dahomey were presented before crowds.
The 1897 Brussels exhibition, which involved Congolese men and women shown in a park in Tervuren under harsh conditions.

The treatment of these individuals ranged from restrictive oversight to neglect, often resulting in illness and death. These displays were justified by the prevailing colonial mindset, which presented African communities as “primitive” and in need of European control.

Indigenous Peoples of Tierra del Fuego

Indigenous groups from Tierra del Fuego, such as the Selk'nam and Yámana, were subjected to public display in both European museums and popular expositions. Small groups were transported from the southern tip of South America to cities including Paris, Berlin, and London.

They were often required to perform activities meant to showcase their “traditional” lifestyles, sometimes staged or exaggerated to meet audience expectations. Clothing, living structures, and ceremonies were presented with little concern for accuracy or dignity.

The journeys and conditions led to significant hardship, including exposure to new diseases and harsh climates. Many individuals did not survive these trips, and their experiences reveal the cost of such displays on marginalized communities.

Chile and Other South American Groups

Other South American peoples, especially from Chile and surrounding regions, were also part of human zoo exhibitions in Europe. Mapuche and other indigenous groups were brought to world’s fairs and ethnological shows.

Organizers typically selected families or individuals who could be showcased as typifying their “race” or culture. These presentations reinforced stereotypes and monitored behavior closely to fit colonial narratives.

Displays in Germany, France, and Spain highlighted cultural practices, dress, and crafts, often blurring the line between anthropological interest and entertainment. The forced nature of participation and the objectification experienced by these South Americans contributed to the broader pattern of exploitation seen in 19th-century human zoos.

Living Conditions and Experiences

In the 19th century, human exhibits in European "human zoos" faced tightly controlled and often harsh daily lives. They were objects of intense attention and frequently encountered degrading treatment and public scrutiny.

Treatment of Human Exhibits

Individuals placed in human zoos were often forced to live in constructed enclosures meant to mimic their homelands, using local materials and props that reflected European fantasies.

Basic necessities such as food, medical care, and shelter were inadequate. Several accounts document malnutrition, exposure to cold, and contagious disease outbreaks; for example, eight Inuit from Labrador died of smallpox while touring European zoos.

Exhibits had strict routines imposed by organizers. Daily life included enforced performances and demonstrations of "native" customs for visitors. There was little privacy, and families were sometimes separated.

Many experienced humiliation and psychological distress. They had limited agency and usually could not leave or refuse participation. Death and illness were not uncommon, reflecting dangerous and neglectful conditions.

Public Reaction and Curiosity

The general public visited these expositions in large numbers, driven by fascination with difference. Displays were widely advertised as spectacles, often invoking ideas of "savages" or the "exotic."

Ticket sales, photographs, and souvenirs were used by organizers to increase revenue and publicity. Crowds often treated the human exhibits as objects of curiosity rather than people, engaging in staring, mockery, or invasive questioning.

Intellectuals, scientists, and colonial authorities sometimes supported the exhibitions as educational, but critics voiced concerns even at the time. Newspapers and some religious leaders occasionally condemned the exhibitions as degrading.

Despite limited protest, the events were social phenomena. Their popularity reinforced stereotypes and further marginalized those displayed, leaving long-lasting impacts on perceptions of race and culture.

Health Impacts on Exhibited Individuals

Individuals displayed in 19th century human zoos were vulnerable to infectious diseases and often suffered from inadequate living conditions. Crowded environments and frequent exposure to unfamiliar pathogens increased the risk of serious illnesses.

Spread of Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis posed a persistent threat to those exhibited in human zoos. Poorly ventilated enclosures and close quarters created optimal conditions for the airborne bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis to spread quickly from person to person.

Many of the individuals on display had no previous exposure or immunity to tuberculosis. They often lived in wooden huts or cages near other performers, reducing their ability to isolate when someone developed symptoms. The disease not only affected their health but also raised public health concerns for local populations.

Mortality rates from tuberculosis among exhibited individuals were significantly higher than those in the general population. The stress of constant observation, travel, and displacement further compromised their immune systems. Health records from the era, where available, often document persistent cough, weight loss, and eventual death from the disease.

Measles and Other Diseases

Measles proved especially lethal for individuals from regions where the disease was rare or unknown. When brought to European cities, they encountered crowds carrying the measles virus, which spread easily in the enclosed and sometimes unsanitary fairgrounds.

Infectious disease outbreaks were common and sometimes swept through entire groups in a matter of weeks. Children were particularly vulnerable, as they lacked prior exposure to many common European illnesses. Other diseases, such as smallpox and influenza, also circulated widely among exhibited groups.

Medical care was often insufficient or delayed, and quarantine protocols were seldom enforced. As a result, preventable deaths from vaccine-preventable illnesses like measles became a tragic and repeated outcome for many participating in these exhibitions.

Racism, Stereotypes, and Societal Impact

The human zoos in 19th-century Europe were not only spectacles but acted as vivid illustrations of the era's colonial ideologies. These exhibits contributed to the entrenchment of racist perceptions and influenced prevailing attitudes toward non-European societies.

Portrayal of Racial Hierarchies

Displays in human zoos grouped individuals from colonized regions—most often Africa, Asia, and the Pacific—in artificial settings that highlighted their "otherness." Organizers presented them as representatives of supposedly "primitive" societies.

Visual and written materials often compared the physical features of the exhibitors to European standards, reinforcing the pseudoscientific ideas of racial superiority. This was closely connected to the spread of eugenics, which sought to classify people based on perceived biological differences.

Examples:

Signage and pamphlets described groups using derogatory language.
Costumes and props exaggerated differences to emphasize the colonial narrative.
Stereotyped performances were staged to suggest innate behaviors.

These elements collectively promoted a hierarchy placing Europeans at the top. Racial stereotyping was normalized in popular culture, helping to legitimize colonial rule and discriminatory policies.

Societal Justifications and Backlash

Supporters of human zoos argued these exhibitions provided education and promoted scientific study. They framed them as opportunities for the public to learn about the world's diversity, masking their racist motivations.

Rationalizations often cited "civilizing missions," aligning with broader colonialist goals. This rhetoric justified forced displays and poor living conditions for those exhibited.

However, criticism also emerged. Some scientists and social commentators condemned the dehumanizing aspects and questioned the validity of so-called scientific claims. Protests in certain cities highlighted discomfort with the overt racism of such events.

Impacts included:

Publications debating ethical issues.
Growth of anti-racist organizations in response to these displays.
Negative legacy for cities and institutions tied to these exhibitions.

Legacy and Decline Through the 20th Century

Exhibitions that displayed people as curiosities in European cities started to face growing backlash and systemic change by the early 1900s. The effects of these displays, however, had lasting consequences for the identities and treatment of indigenous groups in Europe and beyond.

Transition to the 20th Century

As the 20th century began, social and scientific thought shifted, leading to increasing criticism of human zoos and so-called "ethnic shows." Movements against colonialism and scientific racism gained prominence. Governments, academics, and activists began to question the morality of exhibiting human beings for entertainment.

By the 1920s and 1930s, most public displays of indigenous peoples in Europe had rapidly declined. Major exhibitions, like those at Paris' Jardin d’Acclimatation and London's Crystal Palace, closed or changed purpose amid public disapproval and evolving international standards.

Lingering attitudes persisted, but changes in laws, social views, and global opinion gradually ended the practice in mainstream society. The closure of these exhibits reflected new approaches to indigenous rights and cultural representation.

Long-Term Effects on Exhibited Peoples

Indigenous peoples forced into European exhibitions endured stigma, stereotyping, and loss of dignity. Many were separated from their communities, facing poor living conditions, exploitation, and, in some cases, early death.

The harmful legacy of human zoos persisted through negative portrayals in literature, media, and public perception. Descendants of those exhibited sometimes struggled with questions of identity and cultural trauma.

Efforts to address the legacy included museum exhibits acknowledging past abuses, repatriation of remains, and public apologies. Despite increased awareness, the long-term social and psychological effects still influence the lives and representation of some indigenous communities today.

Key challenges faced by exhibited peoples:

Displacement from homelands
Forced assimilation and cultural loss
Stigmatization and misrepresentation

The Human Zoos of 19th Century Europe