The history of Japan has featured both extraordinary threats and extraordinary responses, especially during invasions and wars. In the late 13th century, Japan faced two massive Mongol invasions, each halted by unexpected and powerful typhoons. These events left a lasting impact, leading to the concept of "Divine Wind," or kamikaze, which would later influence Japanese military thinking centuries later.

During World War II, the idea of kamikaze was revived as Japan confronted overwhelming odds in the Pacific. When traditional tactics failed, they turned to unconventional and desperate measures, including suicide attacks from air, sea, and even beneath the waves. These strategies reflected a shift in military priorities and were inspired by earlier moments in Japanese history where survival seemed nearly impossible.

Key Takeaways

Japan survived the Mongol invasions due to unexpected natural disasters.
The legacy of "Divine Wind" influenced World War II suicide tactics.
Japan's military adapted its strategy when faced with overwhelming opposition.

The Mongol Attempts to Invade Japan

Kublai Khan’s Initial 1274 Campaign

In 1274, Kublai Khan, who was the grandson of Genghis Khan, assembled a force of around 30,000 soldiers. They departed from the Korean Peninsula, quickly overtaking the islands of Tsushima and Iki. Upon landing at Hakata Bay on Kyushu, they encountered stiff resistance from Japan's samurai defenders.

The Mongols were unable to establish a strong foothold and eventually chose to withdraw. Their retreat was abruptly halted by a massive typhoon, which destroyed about 200 of their ships and forced an end to the invasion.

Samurai Defense and the Impact of Storms

The local samurai played a crucial role in pushing back the Mongol forces during the initial landings. The harsh weather added to the challenges faced by the invaders. The typhoon that struck as the Mongol fleet prepared to leave delivered a decisive blow, sinking many ships and dramatically reducing the threat.

Key Points in Samurai Defense:

Quick response to Mongol landings
Use of traditional weapons and tactics
Coordination along coastal defenses

Renewed Mongol Assault: The Larger 1281 Operation

Kublai Khan was determined to try again. By 1281, he had gathered a significantly larger invasion force, estimated at about 4,500 ships and 140,000 troops. This armada sailed towards Japan, making it one of the largest invasion forces in pre-modern history.

Japanese defenders were heavily outnumbered, with estimates suggesting a ratio of more than three Mongol soldiers to each Japanese defender. Despite the odds, the Mongols failed to conquer Japan.

Year Number of Ships Estimated Troops 1274 ~900 30,000 1281 ~4,500 140,000

Most of the Mongol fleet was destroyed by another powerful typhoon, leaving only a few hundred ships afloat. The Japanese executed survivors who washed ashore.

The Origin of "Divine Winds" (Kamikaze)

The timing of both typhoons led to the belief among the Japanese that a higher power intervened in their favor. These storms became known as "Divine Winds," or kamikaze. The concept took on great importance in Japanese history and was later invoked centuries afterward, notably during World War II.

The legacy of the term "kamikaze":

Originally referred to typhoons that stopped Mongol invasions
Symbolized hope and protection for Japan during foreign threats
The name was later used for suicide pilots in the 20th century

The events of 1274 and 1281 shaped the course of Japanese history and the meaning of "kamikaze" in their national consciousness.

Emergence of Kamikaze Operations During World War II

Origins and Meaning of the "Divine Wind"

The term often used for these suicide tactics comes from a much older story in Japanese history. In the 13th century, invading Mongol fleets were twice destroyed by powerful typhoons that the Japanese believed were sent by a divine force. These storms were called kamikaze, or “divine wind.”

When the suicide attack units were formed centuries later, this historic name was intentionally revived. Today, the word is recognized not just in Japan but internationally and is part of everyday vocabulary. It can refer to reckless or self-destructive behavior, but its original meaning points to miraculous events believed to have saved Japan at desperate moments.

Original Historical Usage Modern Application Divine wind (typhoons) Suicide tactics in World War II Saved Japan from Mongols Attempted to defend Japan

The Role of the Emperor in Approving These Tactics

As World War II progressed and Japan’s situation became more desperate, the leadership was forced to consider extreme measures. With Japan losing its edge after critical defeats, notably at Midway, conventional military options were increasingly limited.

Emperor Hirohito made the decision to authorize the use of suicide pilots against enemy ships. In an effort to inspire and motivate these volunteers, the Emperor and military leaders invoked the ancient legend, naming the new units after the storm that had once saved Japan. This gave a sense of national purpose and historical significance to the men chosen for these missions.

Leadership Decision: Emperor Hirohito sanctioned the tactic.
Purpose: To boost morale and strengthen resolve by invoking national legend.

First Use of Suicide Missions in 1944

The first instance of these suicide air attacks came on October 25, 1944. Japanese aviators flew aircraft directly into U.S. Navy ships for the first time. This marked the start of a tactic that would be used repeatedly during the latter stages of the war.

These operations did not just rely on standard airplanes. There were many inventive and sometimes extreme variations, including piloted torpedoes, underwater suicide teams, and even human land mines. The aircraft themselves ranged from outdated models repurposed for one-way missions to newly designed vehicles made exclusively for suicide attacks, like the Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka, essentially a flying bomb. Most of the pilots selected were inexperienced and the equipment often obsolete, but it was hoped these aggressive tactics could inflict significant damage even as Japan’s situation worsened.

Key Points:

Date of first attack: October 25, 1944
Targets: U.S. Navy ships
Methods extended beyond planes to include torpedoes and underwater attacks
Pilots were typically young and inexperienced; aircraft often outdated
Special models like the Ohka were developed for these missions

List of Kamikaze Methods Used:

Airborne attacks (piloted aircraft)
Manned torpedoes
Suicide swimmers/divers
Human landmines

Broadening Kamikaze Methods

Manned Underwater Missiles

Japan introduced torpedoes controlled by people, known as kaiten, in an effort to enhance their attack options. These weapons required operators to navigate the device directly toward enemy vessels. Pilots had minimal chances of survival, as they had no rescue mechanism after launching the attack.

Aspect Description Main Purpose Destroy enemy ships Control Manned (piloted) Survival Rate Extremely low

Stealth Attack Swimmers

There were Japanese units composed of divers equipped for covert underwater operations against enemy targets. These individuals, sometimes referred to as Fukuryu, wore diving equipment and carried explosives. Their objective was to approach enemy vessels undetected and detonate their charges—but almost always at the cost of their own lives.

Key Features:
- Used breathing apparatus for stealth.
- Often targeted ships approaching beaches or harbors.
- Missions were regarded as one-way under wartime conditions.

Explosive Infantry Units

Another desperate measure involved assigning individuals to act as human anti-tank mines, placing or carrying explosives on themselves to destroy enemy armor. These actions were intended to disrupt or halt advancing enemy forces using infantry willing to die in the attempt.

Notable points:

Carried explosives attached to their bodies.
Required close proximity to tanks or vehicles.
Expected not to survive the attack.

These various tactics illustrate how Japan expanded the concept of suicide attacks to multiple domains, resulting in unique roles that went far beyond aircraft.

Crucial Shift: The Midway Conflict

Japanese Loss of Control in the Skies

At the start of World War II, Japan possessed one of the most advanced air forces, giving it an edge in many battles. This advantage abruptly ended following intense combat at Midway from June 4 to June 7, 1942. Here is a comparison of key losses:

Japanese Forces US Forces Aircraft Carriers Lost 4 1 Aircraft Destroyed ~250 ~150 Personnel Killed 3,000+ ~300

The loss included many of Japan’s best pilots and aircrew. With limited experienced aviators and degraded equipment, Japan could no longer maintain dominance in the air.

Changes in Japanese Combat Approaches

The result at Midway forced a reevaluation of Japanese tactics. With shortages of skilled pilots and modern aircraft, military leaders sought to maximize impact using whatever resources remained.

Young, inexperienced pilots became the mainstay of the new tactics.
Older, less effective planes were repurposed as expendable assets.

This led to the adoption of deliberately suicidal methods, such as piloted attacks on enemy ships, as traditional bombing became less feasible. The strategy aimed to inflict major damage in exchange for minimal investment, signaling a dramatic and desperate shift in Japanese military planning.

Japan’s Turn Toward Suicide Attack Strategies

Reasons for Initiating Self-Sacrificial Operations

After major defeats and the loss of experienced personnel at battles such as Midway, Japan’s military leaders recognized the need for new approaches. Their remaining pilots were often inexperienced, and their equipment was aging compared to their opponents’. Ordering direct suicide missions was seen as a way to inflict maximum damage using available resources, focusing on hitting valuable enemy ships even at the cost of the pilot and aircraft.

This tactical choice was grounded in the belief that using lesser-trained aircrews on conventional bombing runs was less effective. By contrast, a direct attack increased the odds of serious damage, aligning with the leadership’s focus on achieving results even as the strategic situation worsened.

Composition of the Suicide Attack Forces

Japan’s suicide attack strategy went beyond aircraft. The forces included:

Piloted torpedoes
Human-guided explosive boats
Divers tasked with underwater attacks
Infantry assigned as human mines

Most pilots and crew members involved in these operations were new recruits. Many of the aircraft and vehicles used for these missions were older models, no longer viable for standard combat. By the war’s final years, these units formed a diverse and growing segment of Japan’s military effort.

Creation of Purpose-Built Kamikaze Weapons

As these attack methods evolved, Japan began designing vehicles specifically for suicide missions. The most well-known was the Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka, a specially-made rocket plane created solely for one-way assaults.

Suicide Weapon Description Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka A rocket-powered bomb with wings, piloted directly into enemy vessels Piloted Torpedoes Submarine-launched weapons guided by a human operator Human Manned Boats Explosive-laden watercraft steered toward targets

These specialized models reflected Japan’s commitment to adapting its technology as the war situation became more desperate. Older planes were also used due to the need for quick deployment, even if they could not match enemy aircraft in traditional fights.

Final Thoughts