The Underground Cities of Cappadocia
Exploring Their Purpose as Ancient Refuges or Ritual Spaces
Cappadocia, a region in central Turkey, is home to one of the world's most remarkable networks of underground cities. Carved from soft volcanic rock, these subterranean towns could shelter thousands and stretch many levels deep beneath the surface. They hold a unique place in history for their size and engineering complexity.
The main purpose of the underground cities of Cappadocia was to serve as a refuge for local populations escaping persecution and conflict. Early Christians, Jews, and other groups used these hidden spaces for protection rather than for ritualistic activities. Massive chambers, narrow passages, and clever ventilation systems made long-term dwelling possible, allowing entire communities to stay hidden from danger.
While there are about 200 known underground sites in the region, with famous examples like Derinkuyu reaching depths of up to 85 meters, the enduring mystery of Cappadocia’s underground world continues to attract researchers and travelers alike. Their historical significance as safe havens remains clear, even as new discoveries occasionally hint at additional cultural or religious uses.
Origins and Historical Context
The underground cities of Cappadocia were shaped by unique geology and a succession of cultural and historical influences. These subterranean complexes reflect adaptation to both natural forces and social challenges in central Anatolia from ancient times through the Byzantine era.
Formation of Cappadocia’s Landscapes
The landscapes of Cappadocia are dominated by unusual rock formations created by the deposition of volcanic ash, which hardened into a soft rock known as tuff.
Frequent volcanic eruptions millions of years ago covered central Anatolia in thick tuff layers. Over time, wind and water erosion carved these layers into cones, pillars, and valleys that are iconic today.
Tuff is relatively easy to excavate, allowing people to carve homes, storage rooms, and intricate tunnels directly in the rock.
This geology provided both the raw material and the protective cover needed for underground development.
Early Inhabitants and Ancient Times
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known inhabitants of the region were active in Cappadocia by at least the late Bronze Age.
Some sources trace the origins of underground activity to the Hittite period, around 1200 BCE, though most upper layers date from later times.
These early peoples used the soft tuff for practical shelters, food storage, and places of worship.
The underground spaces often offered refuge during times of conflict or invasion, making them vital for survival.
Simple niches, ventilation shafts, and cisterns point to their functional use even in these early periods.
Phrygians and the Evolution of Underground Architecture
Significant expansion of underground architecture is linked to the Phrygians, who settled in Anatolia during the eighth and seventh centuries BCE.
They began to extend earlier surface and shallow underground sites into more complex, deeper systems.
Phrygian contributions included larger storage rooms, improved ventilation, and more systematically organized tunnels.
These innovations laid the groundwork for later, more extensive developments.
Flexible tuff allowed spaces to be remodeled and enlarged, reflecting shifts in population, security needs, or social structure.
Byzantine Era Expansion
During the Byzantine era, especially between the 4th and 11th centuries CE, Cappadocia’s underground cities expanded dramatically.
This period saw the rise of Christian communities who faced periodic persecution and external threats.
Entire networks of rooms, chapels, barns, kitchens, and defensive mechanisms were carved deeper to shelter civilians.
The underground cities could shelter thousands of people for extended periods.
Derinkuyu, one of the largest, may have been able to house up to 20,000 people at its peak.
Byzantine builders improved access and fortifications, using hidden entrances and rolling stone doors for safety.
Religious symbols and spaces, often intricately painted, also became prominent features underground during this era.
Major Underground Cities of Cappadocia
Cappadocia is home to elaborate multi-story underground settlements built to provide refuge and enable community life under the surface. The largest and best-known examples are Derinkuyu, Kaymakli, and Özkonak, each with unique features and histories.
Derinkuyu Underground City
Derinkuyu is the deepest and most extensive ancient underground city in Cappadocia, reaching depths of more than 85 meters. It has 18 known levels, though only a portion is open to visitors. The complex could accommodate around 20,000 people, including livestock and provisions.
Key features include:
Ventilation shafts up to 55 meters deep
Communal spaces such as churches, wine cellars, and schools
Large rolling stone doors for security
Derinkuyu was used as a refuge by Byzantine Christians and Jews between the 8th and 12th centuries CE. Architectural evidence suggests foundational work by the Phrygians in the Iron Age.
Kaymakli Underground City
Kaymakli is known for its sprawling, maze-like tunnels set over eight floors, with four open to visitors. The city could house several thousand people in times of threat.
Highlights:
Narrow passageways and low ceilings
Communal kitchens, stables, and storage areas
Complex network of tunnels connecting homes and workspaces
Kaymakli was continuously used from the early centuries CE, particularly during periods of invasion. The city’s design emphasizes defense and resource storage, reflecting the daily realities of its inhabitants.
Özkonak Underground City
Özkonak is a smaller but distinctive underground settlement compared to Derinkuyu and Kaymakli. Carved into volcanic rock, it features several floors with unique communication pipes and trapdoors.
Notable characteristics:
Long, thin ventilation shafts providing air and sound exchange
Slots above doors used for pouring hot oil or water onto intruders
Several communal rooms used for living, storage, and defense
Özkonak’s construction is believed to date back to the Byzantine era. Its combination of defensive innovations and residential chambers points to concerns about both security and practical daily life.
Architecture and Engineering Marvels
Underground cities in Cappadocia were shaped by architectural precision and innovative engineering. Builders created complex networks to ensure survival, combining deep tunnels, effective ventilation, and secure water access.
Tunnels and Passageways
The core of Cappadocia's underground architecture lies in its tunnels and passageways. These tunnels, often no more than shoulder-width wide, could descend across multiple levels—Derinkuyu, for example, reaches depths of over 85 meters and has 18 documented layers.
The passageways were deliberately designed with narrow stretches and low ceilings to control access and slow down potential invaders. Security features included large rolling stone doors that sealed off sections and clever choke points that enabled defenders to hold strategic areas.
Tunnels connected essential rooms like communal spaces, stables, kitchens, and places of worship. The construction method exploited the region’s soft volcanic tuff, which was easy to carve but sturdy once exposed to air. This rock choice balanced speed of excavation with lasting structural strength.
Ventilation Systems
Adequate airflow was vital to support thousands of residents underground. The architects planned comprehensive ventilation systems based on vertical shafts. Some shafts served dual purposes, acting as both wells and conduits for fresh air.
Many shafts stretched from the city’s lowest levels up to the surface, sometimes hidden or camouflaged at ground level to avoid detection. The vertical shafts allowed for natural convection of air, drawing cool, fresh air in and pushing stale air out.
In larger sites such as Derinkuyu, more than 50 ventilation shafts have been recorded, demonstrating the builders' awareness of the dangers of suffocation or poor air quality. The careful placement and redundancy of these shafts ensured consistent airflow even if part of the network was blocked.
Water Wells and Cellars
Water management was a primary concern in Cappadocia’s underground cities. Deep wells were carved from within the subterranean network, extending down to the water table to secure a reliable source under siege or in times of drought.
Some wells doubled as defensive features—they could only be accessed from inside the city, preventing enemies from cutting off supplies. Alongside wells, cellars were used to store food, wine, and oil, taking advantage of the cool, constant temperatures underground.
These cellars included storage niches, stone vats, and sealed chambers to protect against spoilage and pests. The combination of water wells and storage areas underlines the careful planning devoted to sustaining life for extended periods below ground.
Purpose: Refuge or Ritual?
The underground cities of Cappadocia served several distinct roles, responding to the needs of their communities. These roles included defense during times of danger, religious activity, and support for daily life.
Refuge from Invasion and Conflict
Cappadocia’s underground cities were primarily constructed as secure refuges during times of invasion and unrest. The vast networks, including cities such as Derinkuyu and Kaymakli, could shelter thousands for extended periods.
Features like heavy stone doors, narrow tunnels, and hidden entrances offered effective defense against intruders. These elements allowed inhabitants to seal themselves off from attackers. According to historians and recent research, these underground spaces were significant shelters for persecuted groups, such as early Christians and Jews.
Inhabitants could remain hidden for weeks, with ventilation shafts and wells providing air and water. Defensive measures were carefully planned, making these cities more than just temporary hideouts.
Religious Use and Ritual Practices
Early Christians in the region adapted the underground cities for worship and community life, especially when aboveground churches were unsafe. Many chambers were carved as rock-cut churches or chapels, sometimes with simple religious decorations or altars.
Some spaces within these cities were designed for communal prayer or the celebration of sacred rituals. The underground setting offered privacy and protection from authorities during times of religious persecution.
Several churches found in the underground cities contain remains of frescoes and symbols. This suggests their importance as places of religious life in addition to their use as refuges.
Storage, Living Quarters, and Daily Life
The underground complexes also supported daily living activities. Rooms were organized for different purposes, including kitchens, stables, storage chambers, and wineries.
Tables:
Facility Purpose Stables Housing animals Wineries Wine production/storage Kitchens Food preparation Living quarters Sleeping and privacy
Many cities had an efficient layout for daily needs such as food storage and animal care. Storage rooms helped maintain supplies for long periods underground, while stable areas kept livestock safe from raiders.
These functional spaces highlight how the underground cities sustained entire communities, not just for brief emergencies but for extended habitation when necessary.
Modern Exploration and Tourism
The underground cities of Cappadocia have become central to local tourism. Visitors can discover these sites independently or as part of organized tours that also include other significant attractions.
Popular Attractions and Sites
The Kaymaklı Underground City is among the most visited sites, known for its extensive tunnels and multi-level rooms. Derinkuyu is another major underground city, notable for its depth and unique ventilation system. Both locations reveal intricate networks carved out of volcanic rock.
Popular routes like the Green Tour combine underground city visits with above-ground highlights, such as the Göreme Open Air Museum. Many travelers opt for the Cappadocia E-Pass, which offers access to multiple attractions. These passes are useful for those wanting to see a broader selection, including both historic and natural wonders.
Private tours and guided group excursions are available, providing deeper insights into the history and construction of these sites. Licensed tour guides explain architectural features, defense systems, and community life within the cities.
Visitor Experience and Accessibility
Access points to major underground cities are well-marked and managed for safety. Entrance fees vary by site, typically ranging from 300–500 Turkish Lira, and can be bundled with other attractions through regional passes.
Pathways can be narrow and steep, so comfortable footwear is recommended. Most underground cities are not fully accessible for visitors with mobility impairments due to the original design of low ceilings and steep stairs.
Transportation between sites is available via local buses, car rentals, and organized tour shuttles. Many visitors prefer participating in day tours that handle logistics and provide historical context. Rest areas and small cafés are usually found near entrances, offering refreshments before or after tours.
Photography is permitted in most areas, but flash use may be restricted. Guided tours help maximize the visitor experience by highlighting architectural and cultural features that are easily missed without expert insight.
Nearby Destinations and Complementary Activities
Cappadocia offers a diverse range of activities and destinations beyond its underground cities. These experiences include open-air museums, medieval castles, scenic valleys, ancient monasteries, and unique hot air balloon rides.
Goreme and Open Air Museum
Goreme stands at the heart of Cappadocia, serving as a cultural and logistical base for many visitors. The Göreme Open Air Museum is the region’s most renowned museum, displaying a cluster of rock-cut churches and chapels decorated with well-preserved Byzantine frescoes.
A visit here reveals monastic life and Christian artistry dating back to the 10th and 11th centuries. The site is a UNESCO World Heritage location, highlighting its global importance. Many travelers use Goreme as a starting point for exploring nearby valleys and hiking trails, such as those leading to Cavusin Village.
In addition to the historical sites, Goreme offers a variety of restaurants, accommodation, and tour options that make it the best base for a stay in Cappadocia. The area is also known for local pottery and craft workshops.
Ihlara Valley and Selime Monastery
Ihlara Valley impresses with its lush greenery and the Melendiz River running through steep canyon walls. Stretching about 14 kilometers, this valley is ideal for hiking and is dotted with hundreds of rock-cut churches, many decorated with frescoes.
A typical hiking route covers accessible points like the Ağaçaltı and Kokar churches. At the valley’s end lies Selime Monastery, one of the largest religious complexes in Cappadocia. The monastery features a cathedral-sized church, monks’ chambers, and ancient kitchens carved into volcanic tuff.
Selime Monastery’s panoramic views of the surrounding landscape make it popular with hikers and photographers. The walk through Ihlara Valley can be combined with visits to smaller villages such as Belisırma, where local cafes offer traditional Turkish meals.
Ortahisar Castle, Uchisar Castle, and Surroundings
Ortahisar Castle and Uchisar Castle are two prominent fortress-like rock formations that offer a glimpse into the region’s defensive history. Uchisar Castle is the highest point in Cappadocia and provides unmatched, sweeping views of the fairy chimney landscape and Mount Erciyes.
Ortahisar Castle, less crowded but equally rich in history, has a network of tunnels and rooms once used for storage and shelter. Both castles are accessed via stone stairs; good footwear is advised for the climb.
The surrounding villages, like Ortahisar and Uchisar, feature traditional stone houses, small local markets, and artisan shops. Cafes and viewpoints near the castles give opportunities for photography and relaxation, especially at sunset.
Hot Air Balloon Rides and Valleys
Hot air balloon rides are one of the most iconic activities in Cappadocia. Launching mainly from Goreme, these early morning flights offer a bird’s-eye view of the unique terrain, fairy chimneys, and lush valleys.
The Red Valley, Rose Valley, Love Valley, and Pigeon Valley are famous for their landscapes and differing hues, which are especially striking at sunrise and sunset. Balloon baskets often drift directly above these valleys, making it possible to see rock formations, old cave houses, and flocks of pigeons nesting in cliff faces.
On the ground, marked hiking trails wind through each valley, letting visitors explore at a more leisurely pace. Many guided walks begin in Cavusin or Goreme and include stops at notable viewpoints or small, hidden churches. Ballooning companies typically provide round-trip transfers, making the experience accessible regardless of where guests are staying in Cappadocia.
Cultural Connections and Local Life
Life above and below ground in Cappadocia was shaped by distinct traditions, daily routines, and creative expression. Regional flavors, religious music, and local crafts are still closely tied to the heritage of the underground cities.
Cuisine, Local Wine, and Restaurants
Cappadocia’s cuisine blends Anatolian ingredients with methods adapted to the region’s volcanic terrain. Many restaurants in towns such as Ürgüp and Göreme serve specialties like testi kebabı (meat and vegetables slow-cooked in a clay pot), lentil soup, and a variety of breads. Lunch menus often feature fresh vegetables, yogurt-based dishes, and local cheeses.
Local wines play a major role in both the culinary and social life of the area. Restaurants frequently highlight regional vintages on their wine lists, with grape varieties such as Kalecik Karası and Emir grown in the surrounding valleys. Wine-pairing menus are common, offering visitors a taste of Cappadocia’s viticulture traditions alongside their meals.
Traditional Music, Art, and Whirling Dervishes
Music and art form an essential part of the area’s cultural landscape, often reflecting the spiritual significance of the underground sites. The haunting sounds of the ney (reed flute) and the rhythmic beat of the davul (drum) are commonly heard during local ceremonies.
Cappadocia is also known for performances of the whirling dervishes. These Sufi rituals, often hosted in restored caravanserais or caves, connect to the spiritual practices of early Christian and later Islamic communities. Artisans in the region continue to produce pottery, carpets, and decorative motifs inspired by the region’s cave churches and ancient frescoes.
Winemaking and Cellars
The geology that once offered safety also provides ideal conditions for wine cellars. Many winery owners use historic underground chambers to store and age their wines. These cool and stable environments protect the wines from harsh temperatures.
Cappadocia has a deep-rooted winemaking tradition, with wineries such as Turasan and Kocabag offering tours and tastings. Visitors can explore cellars hewn directly from the soft tuff rock, gaining insight into the methods used by local vintners for centuries. Wine festivals are held seasonally, celebrating both the harvest and the region’s enduring agricultural heritage.
Practical Information and Travel Tips
Underground cities in Cappadocia require careful planning due to their unique environments and entry requirements. Travelers must consider safety, health, and official entry costs before their visit.
Safety, Health Considerations, and Claustrophobia
The tunnels and rooms of Kaymakli and Derinkuyu are narrow, low-ceilinged, and sometimes steep. Visitors with claustrophobia may find these conditions stressful or overwhelming, as there are limited exits and compact corridors.
People with heart ailments or serious respiratory problems should consult a doctor before entering, since underground air can be dense and paths may require physical exertion. Uneven steps and low lighting are common, so a flashlight and sturdy shoes are recommended.
Those with lower back pain might struggle with crouching or bending. There are no elevators—access is by staircases, which may be slippery or crowded during peak hours. Children should be supervised closely at all times inside the tunnels.
Visitor Essentials and Taxes
Entrance fees for underground cities such as Kaymakli and Derinkuyu typically range from 200 to 300 Turkish Lira, payable at the entrance. Tickets can be purchased on-site, and travelers should have cash or a card ready for payment.
The Cappadocia E-pass is accepted at many sites and can offer cost savings for visitors planning to see multiple attractions. Taxes are generally included in ticket prices, but it is wise to confirm at the ticket counter.
Most sites provide basic amenities such as restrooms and small souvenir stands outside the entrance, but food options are limited nearby. It is best to bring water and light snacks, especially for longer visits. There is no dress code, but comfortable clothing is advised.
