The Builders of the Serpent Mound Uncovering the Ancient Architects and Their Legacy
Archaeologists have identified the builders of the Serpent Mound as most likely members of the Adena or Fort Ancient cultures, with the latest evidence pointing toward the Fort Ancient people, who lived in the Ohio Valley around 1070 C.E. This earthwork, stretching over 1,300 feet in length, represents one of the most remarkable examples of prehistoric mound construction in North America.
Interest in Serpent Mound’s origins stems from its unique structure and purpose, which has fueled debates among scholars for decades. The mound’s coil-shaped design and location on an ancient plateau continue to raise questions about its builders and the cultural significance it held for them.
Today, continued research into Serpent Mound offers insight into the lives and achievements of the prehistoric peoples of Ohio, providing valuable context for understanding their engineering skills, beliefs, and lasting legacy.
Overview of the Serpent Mound
The Great Serpent Mound is a prehistoric earthwork notable for its distinctive serpent shape and large scale. It stands out as an important archaeological site in Ohio, raising questions about its builders, purpose, and cultural legacy.
Location and Physical Description
The Serpent Mound is located near Peebles in Adams County, Ohio. It sits atop a plateau overlooking Brush Creek, a tributary in the Ohio River Valley.
Measuring about 1,376 feet (419 meters) in length, the mound undulates in a winding, serpent-like pattern. Its height ranges from 9 inches to over 3 feet (30–100 cm), with a spiral-shaped coil forming the serpent’s head.
Constructed entirely of earth, the mound sits within a landscape that contains other Native American mounds and earthworks. Its elevated location provides a broad view of the surroundings, possibly adding to its significance.
Significance as an Effigy Mound
The Serpent Mound is recognized as the largest surviving effigy mound in the world. Effigy mounds are earthworks built to represent animals, symbolic shapes, or spiritual forms.
Unlike burial mounds, the Serpent Mound does not contain human remains within its primary structure. The serpent design is believed to hold symbolic meaning, possibly relating to cosmology or mythology.
Its unique form distinguishes it from other Native American mounds found throughout the Midwest. The deliberate shape and alignment demonstrate advanced planning and soil engineering skills among its builders.
Cultural and Historical Importance
Archaeologists attribute the construction of the Serpent Mound to Indigenous peoples living in the Ohio Valley. Scholars suggest connections to the Fort Ancient culture (c. 1000–1650 CE), though some evidence points to earlier builders, such as those of the Adena culture.
The mound reflects the earthwork-building traditions of the region, highlighting ceremonial and social functions beyond simple utility. Its preservation offers insight into prehistoric culture, including beliefs and practices related to landscape and symbolism.
Today, Serpent Mound is celebrated as a National Historic Landmark. It attracts researchers, educators, and visitors interested in Native American heritage and ancient engineering.
The Ancient Builders: Cultures and Peoples
Serpent Mound’s origins reflect the skills and beliefs of several prehistoric Native American cultures in Ohio. Archaeological evidence links the site to distinct communities, each contributing to the region’s history and shaping ongoing debates about the mound’s construction.
Adena Culture and Their Role
Archaeological excavations have found burials and artifacts near Serpent Mound that resemble those linked to the Adena culture, active from about 1000 BCE to 200 CE. Radiocarbon dating of nearby materials often points to Adena-era timelines.
The Adena people were mound builders known for constructing large earthenworks, conical burial mounds, and ceremonial centers. Their settlements extended throughout the Ohio Valley.
Characteristics of the Adena culture include:
Use of earth to create burial and effigy mounds
Skilled craftsmanship in pottery, stone tools, and pipes
Trade with other groups for copper, shells, and mica
Some researchers believe the Adena could be the original builders of the Serpent Mound, given its location, construction style, and the presence of other nearby Adena sites.
Contributions of the Fort Ancient Culture
The Fort Ancient culture lived in southern Ohio from about 1000 CE to 1650 CE. New radiocarbon studies have connected construction at Serpent Mound to this later group, leading to suggestions the mound may have been built or modified by them.
Fort Ancient people built villages, farmed maize, and created ceremonial earthworks, although their mounds were usually simpler than those of the Adena. The society showed evidence of structured leadership and complex beliefs.
Key features of the Fort Ancient culture:
Aspect Details Agriculture Maize farming and food storage Earthworks Circular and rectangular enclosures Pottery Decorated, often cord-marked designs Social Structure Village-based with regional connections
The Fort Ancient likely used Serpent Mound for ceremonies or gatherings, adding new layers of meaning or reshaping parts of the earthwork over time.
Hopewell Culture Influences
The Hopewell culture dominated much of the Midwest from around 200 BCE to 500 CE, overlapping with and succeeding the Adena. They built massive geometric earthworks, which differed in form from Serpent Mound but may have shared symbolic aspects.
Hopewell settlements show extensive trade networks for materials like obsidian, mica, and marine shells, found in their mounds across Ohio. Objects from afar point to widespread cultural exchanges.
While Serpent Mound’s sinuous, animal-shaped design is distinct from Hopewell geometric patterns, similarities in burial practices and ceremonial use of mounds indicate possible Hopewell influence or inheritance of mound traditions.
Mississippian Culture Connections
The Mississippian culture, flourishing from about 800 CE to 1600 CE, shaped much of the American Southeast and parts of the Midwest. Their most famous sites, like Cahokia, feature platform mounds and plazas smaller in number in Ohio.
Mississippian peoples maintained networks of long-distance trade, especially in shell, copper, and stone artifacts. While their direct link to Serpent Mound remains debated, contact with other mound-building cultures may have influenced the symbolic complexity of the site.
Some motifs in Mississippian art resemble serpent imagery, hinting at a possible sharing or blending of religious and artistic ideas. However, direct Mississippian construction at Serpent Mound is considered less likely based on current archaeological findings.
Archaeological Investigations and Discoveries
Archaeological research into Serpent Mound has relied on methods from early documentation to modern dating techniques. Work by notable explorers, institutions, and archaeologists has shaped current understanding of the site's origins and function.
Early Exploration and Documentation
Serpent Mound was first documented by European settlers in the late eighteenth century, though local Indigenous peoples were already long aware of it. In 1846, Ephraim Squier and Edwin Davis produced detailed maps and measurements, which they published in their influential book, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. Their work, sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution, marked the first scientific exploration of the site.
Interest in the mound increased after their publication. The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard sent Frederic Ward Putnam in the 1880s to conduct more systematic research. Putnam's investigations included significant mapping, description, and preservation efforts. His work led to critical early hypotheses about the builders and function of the mound.
Excavations and Archaeological Work
Excavations at Serpent Mound began in the late nineteenth century and have continued intermittently into the twenty-first. Putnam's 1887 excavation described the mound's construction in layers and noted its lack of burials, challenging the idea of its use as a burial mound.
In the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, archaeologists conducted new digs and surveys, such as those by the ASC Group in 2011. Modern archaeologists use advanced techniques, including remote sensing, soil analysis, and geophysical surveys. These methods revealed the mound was constructed in stages, and identified features such as post molds and evidence of earthmoving.
Research remains ongoing, especially debates regarding which culture—Hopewell or Fort Ancient—built the mound. Some archaeologists argue for a Hopewell origin based on surrounding artifacts, while others link it to the Fort Ancient culture, citing construction evidence and dating results.
Carbon and Radiocarbon Dating
Carbon dating has played a significant role in attempts to determine the mound's age. Early estimates based on artifact typology varied widely, but direct radiocarbon dating provided new clarity. In the 1990s, charcoal samples from the mound were analyzed, yielding dates around 1070 CE.
These dates support a construction by the Fort Ancient culture, rather than the earlier Hopewell people. However, the presence of Hopewell artifacts nearby has kept the discussion open among researchers. Advances in dating methods continue to fine-tune the chronology, helping to distinguish construction phases and later modifications or restorations.
Radiocarbon and carbon dating remain central to archaeological study at Serpent Mound. This work is ongoing, with new samples sometimes producing slightly different age estimates, reflecting the complexity of the site’s long history.
Structure and Symbolism of the Serpent Mound
Serpent Mound stands out for its remarkable effigy shape, extensive size, and possible links to both religious beliefs and celestial events. Its complex form and orientation have led to theories connecting it with astronomical observations and solstices.
Design Elements and Features
Serpent Mound is an earthen effigy mound over 1,300 feet (about 400 meters) long, representing a coiled snake with a spiral-shaped head and an undulating body. The structure reaches up to 3 feet in height and varies in width from 20 to 25 feet along most sections.
At the head of the serpent is a separate oval form, often interpreted as either the snake’s eye or an object, possibly an egg, being swallowed or released. Some suggest symbolic meanings such as fertility or rebirth. The tail forms a three-coil spiral.
This site belongs to the tradition of effigy mounds—large earthworks shaped like animals—built by Indigenous cultures. Unlike burial mounds, Serpent Mound does not contain significant internal burials. The shape and size make it an iconic prehistoric earthwork in North America.
Astronomical Alignments and Solstice
Researchers have proposed that Serpent Mound aligns with significant celestial events, including the summer solstice and major lunar phenomena. The head of the serpent points to the setting sun on the longest day of the year.
Additional undulations in the body correspond to points on the horizon where the sun and moon rise or set during solstices and lunar standstills. There is also possible alignment with events like solar eclipses.
These features suggest that the builders may have used the mound for ceremonial purposes related to tracking time or marking cyclical astronomical events. The site’s design provides insight into the astronomical knowledge and cultural practices of its creators.
Context Within the Broader Landscape
Serpent Mound stands out among hundreds of prehistoric earthworks scattered across southern Ohio and nearby regions. Its design, function, and cultural connections are best understood by comparing it with other notable mounds and effigy sites.
Related Mounds and Earthworks in Ohio
Ohio’s landscape is dotted with ancient mounds and earthworks, including both burial and effigy forms. The Miamisburg Mound is among the largest conical burial mounds in the state and is believed to have been constructed by the Adena culture.
The Hopewell Culture National Historical Park preserves massive geometric earthworks, including circles and squares, built by the Hopewell people between 200 BCE and 500 CE. These ceremonial sites often served as burial grounds and gathering spaces. Unlike Serpent Mound, most of these earthworks do not take animal shapes.
Burial mounds, such as those near Chillicothe and throughout the Scioto River Valley, served as tombs for important individuals. These differ significantly from non-burial sites like Serpent Mound, which shows little evidence of serving as a grave.
Serpent Mound’s Relationship With Regional Sites
Serpent Mound is unique because of its serpentine shape, setting it apart from most other Ohio mounds. However, its placement on a high plateau overlooking Ohio Brush Creek is similar to the positioning of other mound complexes in the region.
Researchers debate whether the builders were from the Adena, Hopewell, or Fort Ancient cultures. Archaeological evidence links Serpent Mound’s construction to the Fort Ancient people, but earlier traditions may have influenced its design.
Comparisons with Cahokia in Illinois, the biggest Mississippian mound site, show both similarities and differences. Both sites are monumental earthworks, but Cahokia consisted of platform mounds for buildings, while Serpent Mound uses an effigy form for ceremonial or symbolic purposes.
Despite variations in style, Serpent Mound and these other earthworks show shared traditions of landscape modification and symbolic construction across prehistoric North America.
Burial Practices and Ritual Use
Serpent Mound is known for its striking effigy shape, but not for containing graves within its own structure. Archaeological findings demonstrate that while the mound itself lacks direct burials, the surrounding area shows evidence of human interments and ritual activity.
Evidence of Cremation and Interments
No graves have been uncovered inside the Serpent Mound, distinguishing it from many other burial mounds in the region. However, burial mounds located nearby have revealed both primary and secondary interments.
Excavations in the vicinity uncovered burials marked by cremation and inhumation, with some graves containing funerary items such as bracelets, gorgets, and ear spools. This table highlights notable discoveries:
Feature Details Location Outside Serpent Mound proper, in adjacent mounds Burial Types Cremation and inhumation Grave Goods Ornaments (bracelets, ear spools, gorgets) Cultural Context Associated with local indigenous tradition
The presence of varied burial practices suggests that the builders may have followed regional customs that combined both cremation and interment, typically marked with personal artifacts.
Ritual Significance of the Site
Serpent Mound served as more than a funerary site. Its precise alignment with solar and lunar events points to ritualistic and ceremonial uses rather than merely burial functions.
Archaeologists believe the layout was intentional, possibly for seasonal observations or religious gatherings. The absence of graves within the effigy reinforces the interpretation of the site as a location for communal or spiritual activities rather than individual memorialization.
Several mounds in the broader area are typical burial sites, but Serpent Mound’s form and lack of interments suggest a focus on ceremonial significance. This distinction highlights its unique status among prehistoric earthworks in North America.
