The Builders of the Ancient City of Derinkuyu
Uncovering the Architects Behind the Underground Metropolis
Beneath the fields of Cappadocia in Turkey lies Derinkuyu, an ancient underground city extending over 85 meters deep and spanning multiple levels. The city was most likely constructed by the Phrygians around the 8th century BC, using carved volcanic rock to create a vast network of tunnels and rooms. This impressive feat of engineering once sheltered thousands of people, providing safety and stability in a region marked by invasions and unrest.
Derinkuyu's layout includes areas for living, storage, worship, and even livestock, showing careful planning and architectural skill. As one of the largest and most elaborate subterranean settlements in the world, its existence raises compelling questions about the people who built such a place and what drove them to live underground. The scale and complexity of Derinkuyu reflect not only the ingenuity of its builders but also the unique history of Cappadocia and ancient Anatolia.
Historical Context of Derinkuyu
Derinkuyu stands as one of the deepest and most expansive underground cities in Cappadocia. Its history is closely tied to the social, religious, and military changes in central Turkey over the centuries.
Timeline of Construction
The earliest tunnels of Derinkuyu likely date back to the 8th–7th centuries BCE. Scholars often attribute the initial work to the Phrygians, skilled builders of the Iron Age.
Later developments occurred under the Persians, followed by significant expansions during the Byzantine era, especially from the 4th to 12th centuries CE. At its peak, Derinkuyu reached 18 levels and extended more than 85 meters deep. Major usage periods corresponded with times of invasion, particularly the Arab–Byzantine conflicts between the 8th and 12th centuries.
Key periods of construction:
Phrygian Era: Initial excavation
Persian Rule: Possible continued use and expansion
Byzantine Period: Largest growth, adaptation for defense
Rise of Underground Cities
Derinkuyu is part of a broader network of underground settlements in Cappadocia. The region's soft volcanic rock allowed inhabitants to carve out extensive tunnels and rooms. Underground cities like Derinkuyu were designed to serve as refuges during wars, raids, and periods of religious persecution.
Other nearby sites, such as Kaymakli, share similar features. These cities included living quarters, storage rooms, churches, and ventilation shafts. Entrances were often hidden or protected with large rolling stone doors.
The development of these cities reflects the need for security and adaptability. Communities relied on multi-level layouts to shelter thousands for extended periods.
Significance in Ancient Cappadocia
Derinkuyu’s scale and complexity made it a vital center during turbulent times. It could support about 20,000 people — including food stores, wells, and communal spaces.
The city played a pivotal role as a sanctuary for early Christians escaping persecution. Its strategic location in Cappadocia, a crossroads of trade and conflict, heightened its importance.
Derinkuyu’s preservation and UNESCO recognition underscore its value as an ancient site, demonstrating advanced engineering and the resilience of its builders. As a landmark in Turkey, it offers insights into the ways ancient societies adapted to unpredictable threats.
The Builders: Civilizations and Communities
Derinkuyu’s vast underground city reflects a blend of influences and innovations spanning several ancient societies in Anatolia. Archaeologists and historians have studied its structure to trace the distinct roles played by the Hittites and Phrygians and to identify core origins in its early development.
Origins of the Architects
Derinkuyu is located in present-day Nevşehir Province, central Turkey. Its first chambers are believed to date back to the late Bronze Age, with early construction sometimes attributed to the Hittites, who dominated Anatolia between roughly 1600 and 1100 BCE.
Scholars propose that the city’s oldest tunnels and ventilation shafts were dug for shelter and defense during times of conflict and invasion. The motivations behind such construction likely included protection from both marauding armies and severe climate conditions.
Archaeological evidence points to the region being a crossroads for various cultures. Layers added over centuries indicate that successive communities adapted the city for their specific uses, expanding its tunnels, living quarters, and communal spaces.
Phrygian Influence
The Phrygians emerged as a significant power in central Anatolia after the decline of the Hittite Empire. During the first millennium BCE, Phrygian settlers likely took over and expanded earlier underground structures in the region.
Architectural features, such as round stone doors and complex passageways, are often linked to Phrygian engineering methods. The increase in levels, ventilation systems, and communal areas is thought to reflect the community-oriented lifestyle of the Phrygians.
Historical analyses suggest that the Phrygians’ contributions enhanced both security and habitability. This period likely saw the transformation of Derinkuyu from temporary shelter to a fully self-contained city capable of housing thousands, complete with wells, storage rooms, and even religious spaces.
Contributions of the Hittites
The Hittites were early innovators in Anatolia, excelling in fortifications and subterranean architecture. Many archaeologists credit them with laying the foundational structure of Derinkuyu—possibly as early as the second millennium BCE.
Key features such as deep wells and multi-level rooms are characteristic of Hittite engineering. The need to withstand foreign invasions, especially from Eastern enemies like the Assyrians, provided the practical impetus for such large-scale subterranean development.
It is likely that Hittite refugees used these spaces during periods of instability. The influence of Hittite construction techniques can be seen in the earliest tunnels, stonework, and entryways, many of which remained in continuous use and adaptation by later cultures.
Purpose and Functionality
Derinkuyu was not merely a shelter, but a multipurpose complex built to address security, spiritual, and daily needs. Its design reflects a thoughtful approach to surviving dangers, maintaining community life, and facilitating worship underground.
Use as Refuge During Wars
The primary function of Derinkuyu was to serve as a secure refuge during times of invasion or war. The city extended more than 85 meters underground and could accommodate up to 20,000 people, together with their livestock and food stores. Thick stone doors at each level could be rolled shut from the inside, providing strong protection against external threats.
Multiple ventilation shafts ensured fresh air throughout the tunnels, while wells supplied water independent of the surface. These features allowed inhabitants to survive sieges that might last for months. Tunnel layouts were often narrow and maze-like, designed to slow intruders and give defenders the advantage.
Living spaces were distributed throughout the city, with numerous storage rooms for grain and other provisions.
Religious and Social Life
The underground city included dedicated areas for religious practice, most notably large rock-cut chapels and churches. Carved out of the soft volcanic rock, these spaces allowed early Christians to gather for worship safely, hidden from persecutors and invaders.
Key features for daily life included:
Communal kitchens for meal preparation
Stables for livestock
A school room for education
Separate family living spaces
Social and spiritual life continued unhindered beneath the surface. Religious symbols, frescoes, and altars found in several chambers suggest that celebrations, teaching, and community gatherings were central to life in Derinkuyu.
Architectural Structure and Engineering
Derinkuyu’s architecture reflects advanced engineering suited for long-term underground habitation. The city was constructed within soft tuff, a volcanic ash-based rock, allowing for detailed design and stable excavation.
Multilevel Settlement Design
Derinkuyu is a prime example of a multilevel settlement, reaching depths of around 60 meters. Archaeologists have identified at least eight fully accessible floors, with some estimates suggesting up to 18 levels existed. Living quarters, communal rooms, kitchens, storage spaces, wineries, stables, and a church were distributed throughout these levels to support daily life underground.
The city was engineered to enable efficient use of space and resources. Separate areas minimized fire hazards and ensured food storage could remain safe. Each level was connected via staircases carved directly into the tuff. Security was a major consideration, with stone doors that could be rolled into place to block off passageways if necessary.
Key Features:
Up to 18 levels below ground
Functional zoning (living, food storage, communal areas)
Emergency barricades for protection
Tunnels and Passageways
A network of narrow tunnels and connecting passageways formed the arteries of Derinkuyu. These tunnels, some less than a meter wide, controlled traffic flow and provided strategic advantages in defense by preventing large numbers from moving through quickly.
Tunnel walls were shaped from the volcanic tuff to maintain stability. At certain junctions, hidden escape routes and dead-ends allowed inhabitants to evade invaders or block passages when needed. Many passageways led to neighboring underground cities, creating an interconnected network beneath Cappadocia.
Characteristics:
Narrow width for defense and insulation
Hidden escape routes and dead-ends
Connections to surrounding underground settlements
Ventilation System Innovations
Ventilation was critical to survival in the enclosed underground environment. Derinkuyu’s builders created an extensive system of vertical ventilation shafts, with major shafts running from the surface through all levels of the city.
These shafts, numbering over 50, supplied fresh air and helped regulate temperature and humidity. Some shafts also served as wells, providing access to groundwater. The placement and size of ventilation shafts ensured that air circulated effectively even in the deepest parts of the city.
Ventilation Highlights:
Over 50 vertical shafts
Dual-purpose as both ventilation and water supply
Even air distribution to all occupied levels
Daily Life in Derinkuyu
Residents of Derinkuyu developed innovative spaces to support survival and daily activity underground. The city’s complex systems ensured access to food, safe shelter for animals, social needs, and burial rites.
Kitchens and Food Storage
Kitchens were essential for meal preparation and preservation. Residents carved out dedicated rooms with stone ovens and ventilation shafts to cook safely underground. Open fire was possible due to well-designed air circulation systems that prevented smoke buildup.
Storage rooms were built adjacent to kitchens for keeping grains, legumes, and dried foods. Cool underground temperatures kept perishables fresh for longer periods. Stone bins and clay jars were used to organize and protect supplies from pests and moisture.
Sometimes, food storage was communal. Multiple families could share larger pantries, especially during sieges or long stays underground. Efficient layout helped reduce travel time when moving ingredients or fuel, improving daily routines.
Livestock Facilities
Derinkuyu included extensive areas for livestock, which played a vital role in food security and transportation. Stables and pens were located on the upper levels of the city to make waste removal and ventilation easier.
The animals most likely kept here included sheep, goats, and poultry. Special channels directed fresh air and removed odors, reducing the health risks associated with keeping animals underground. Waste was collected and disposed of in carefully designed shafts.
Livestock provided meat, milk, eggs, and wool. Keeping animals in the city meant inhabitants could withstand long periods without venturing outside. The presence of animals also contributed to the community’s self-sufficiency during emergencies.
Wineries and Production
Wine was a staple in Derinkuyu for both daily consumption and religious rituals. Winemaking facilities were carved out with sloped floors and collection basins to process grapes efficiently.
Residents pressed grapes in large stone vats, allowing juice to run into storage jars below. Cool conditions in the city were ideal for fermentation and storage, enabling the community to produce and store sizable quantities of wine.
Wineries were often close to food storage rooms and communal areas. This proximity made it easier to gather for events or rituals. Specialized tools such as crushers and ceramic containers show the advanced nature of local production methods.
Tombs and Burial Practices
The population of Derinkuyu required burial sites within the subterranean city. Tomb chambers were constructed off main passages or deeper within less-trafficked corridors to ensure privacy and respect for the deceased.
Tombs ranged from simple cavities for common people to larger, family-style burial rooms. Stone slabs sealed the spaces, protecting remains from animals and environmental factors. Small niches sometimes held personal items or offerings.
Burial practices reflected the city’s religious and cultural beliefs. The placement of tombs underground allowed community members to visit and maintain graves without venturing to the surface, especially during times of danger.
Religious and Educative Centers
Derinkuyu’s underground layout was not only for protection but also addressed the social and spiritual needs of its inhabitants. Spaces were set aside for worship, instruction, and gathering, playing a critical role in community life.
Churches and Chapels
Multiple churches and chapels were carved directly into the rock within Derinkuyu. The largest is a cruciform church located on the lowest excavated level. Its ceilings are vaulted, and the walls feature carved crosses and symbols used by early Christians.
These religious spaces offered safe places for worship, especially important during times of persecution. Chapels were typically small, with simple altars and benches carved from stone. The presence of these churches strongly suggests a Christian population using the city as both a home and a sanctuary.
Features:
Altars and pulpits carved from bedrock
Fresco remnants on some walls
Separate rooms for religious ceremonies
Schools and Educational Roles
Several rooms within Derinkuyu served as schools, where children and adults taught religious texts, reading, and writing. Archaeologists have identified a number of wide, communal areas likely used as classrooms.
Instruction focused on biblical teachings, hymn singing, and the basics of literacy or numeracy. Schools doubled as gathering spots, reinforcing group identity and passing on cultural knowledge. Larger halls allowed for lectures, while smaller niches may have supported individual or small group study.
Educational functions included:
Scriptural education
Basic literacy
Preparation for religious roles within the community
These spaces reveal that even under the threat of conflict, religious practice and education remained essential to daily life inside Derinkuyu.
Archaeological Discoveries and Excavations
Extensive excavations at Derinkuyu have revealed hidden architectural features, extensive networks of tunnels, and artifacts that clarify its scale and history. Archaeologists and scholars have analyzed these findings to interpret who constructed and occupied this ancient underground city in Nevşehir Province.
Major Excavation Efforts
Modern exploration of Derinkuyu began in the early 1960s following a fortuitous discovery in a local man’s basement. State archaeologists later conducted systematic excavations, mapping multi-level tunnel systems and revealing new chambers.
These efforts uncovered a city reaching depths of around 85 meters and featuring 18 known levels, though not all are open to the public for safety reasons. Archaeologists worked with limited visibility and complex layouts, relying on careful documentation and structural assessments.
Preservation of access points and ventilation shafts required careful attention. Researchers from Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism collaborated with international teams to ensure proper conservation protocols were followed.
Mounds and Artifacts Unearthed
Excavation of Derinkuyu’s mounds yielded numerous artifacts, including clay pottery, stone grinding stones, and metal tools. These items provide insight into daily life and technological capabilities of the city’s ancient residents.
Archaeologists have documented rooms used as stables, kitchens, wineries, and communal spaces. Findings include large rolling stone doors, used for security, and a sophisticated ventilation system.
Other significant discoveries consist of religious spaces such as chapels, suggesting both domestic and spiritual uses. Each level contained evidence of water wells, storage silos, and communal gathering areas.
Interpretations by Scholars
Scholars have debated which ancient peoples first built and expanded Derinkuyu, with theories pointing to the Phrygians or the earlier Hittites. Dating of pottery shards and construction techniques supports a timeline beginning as early as the late Bronze Age.
Researchers highlight similarities between Derinkuyu’s underground architecture and other ancient Anatolian sites, suggesting a tradition of subterranean building. Some propose that several phases of modification took place, adapting original Hittite tunnels for later purposes.
Academic discussions also emphasize the role of Derinkuyu in responding to invasions or climate challenges. Evidence from excavations has fueled ongoing reevaluation of how ancient Nevşehir communities organized their subterranean world for both protection and daily living.
Mysteries and Theories
Derinkuyu’s origins remain largely unexplained despite modern archaeological advances. Historians and researchers debate its construction methods, intended use, and cultural influences, leaving many aspects shrouded in uncertainty.
Unknown Aspects of the Builders
Evidence about who built Derinkuyu is incomplete. Some scholars suggest the Anatolian Hittites as possible builders as early as the 15th century BC. Others point to later Phrygian involvement during the 8th century BC. There are even claims that subsequent civilizations expanded or re-purposed the city.
A major mystery is the skill involved in carving such extensive tunnels, ventilation shafts, and multi-level rooms with ancient tools. The sheer scale of the city—capable of housing 20,000 people—suggests sophisticated organization and advanced engineering for its time.
No direct written records from the builders have been found. Much is inferred from artifacts, construction style, and regional history, leaving the builders’ identities and motives open to ongoing debate.
Celestial Alignments and Symbolism
Some researchers have explored possible astronomical significance in Derinkuyu’s layout. Unlike some ancient sites, no confirmed alignments with solstices, equinoxes, or constellations have been found within the city’s architecture.
However, some theories propose that the orientation of specific rooms or passageways could have held symbolic or ritual meaning. For example, circular stones sealing entrances may echo cosmological beliefs about protection or cycles.
Without primary sources or inscriptions, evidence for celestial alignments at Derinkuyu remains speculative. It is clear, though, that ancient cultures often integrated spiritual and astronomical elements into their monumental constructions.
Comparisons with Underground Cities in China
China is home to ancient underground complexes, such as the Yaodong cave dwellings, but there are crucial differences. Chinese underground structures were primarily residential and often reflect responses to climate and geography.
In contrast, Derinkuyu’s scale, depth, and defensive features—like rolling stone doors—set it apart from its Chinese counterparts. The Turkish city was designed to shelter thousands under threat, evidenced by storage chambers, wells, and communal areas spread across multiple subterranean levels.
While underground cities in both regions show adaptation to local needs, there is no direct cultural or architectural link between Derinkuyu and Chinese examples. Their differences highlight how unique environmental, social, and historical factors shaped each civilization’s use of subterranean space.
